Governmental Financial Accounting European -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Governmental Financial Accounting European? Answer: Introduction Accounting theories that govern the fundamental principles of accounting are constantly being modified and evolved in order to enhance the suitability and adoptability of the accounting principles in relation to the global standards. The topic that has been chosen for the purpose of the study is that a journal article that depicts the implications of the positive accounting theories hypotheses. The particular journal article that has been chosen for the purpose of the study is the The opportunistic approach of the Positive Accounting theory fails to explain a case study: An anomalous situation? by Adolfo Henrique Coutinho e Silva, Moacir Sancovschi and Ariane Gabriela Chagas dos Santos The journal article reviews particular literature that seeks to establish evidence that supports the positive accounting theory of corporate social disclosures. In this particular article focus has been put upon the Watts and Zimmermans reference to social responsibility. Furthermore, the high degree of revenue that have been displayed by the organizations to decrease and the unprecedented rise in the political costs make the disclosures related to social theories, confusing. This particular study also lists the potential problems that are reflected by the companies while adopting the positive accounting theory (Williams 2014). Case Study Analysis There have been numerous accounting theories in use like the legitimacy theory, stakeholder theory and the critical or political economic theory. Along with these traditional theories, the new accounting theory that has come up in the new age, political accounting theory or the political cost hypothesis that effectively justifies the voluntary social disclosures. The article depends on the studies conducted by Watts and Zimmerman and other related literature. There have been enough literature supporting the fact that the positive accounting theories are not about how a social report should be but the what a social report is. It has been argued by the experts that the positive accounting theories contribute in no way for the improvement of social reporting based on the corporate standards (Li 2015). The view that has been proposed in the journal has been that the managers in an organization make use of the accounting systems for performing the opportunistic voluntary changes in the accounting practices for affecting the external contracts or maximizing their own compensations. The Positive Accounting Hypothesis explains the opportunistic accounting choices without taking into consideration that the estimations in regards to this theory (McLellan 2014). The three major hypotheses of this theory are as follows: Bonus Plan Hypothesis Debt Covenants Hypothesis Response to the regulatory constraints or political costs Other experts argue that the justification in relation to as to why companies provide voluntary disclosures in the financial reports, the role of positive accounting theories cannot be demeaned. However, the critiques have provided enough argument stating that the social disclosures depend on a number of material factors like the size of the firm and the nature of industry in which the business is established. Thus, in order to reject the positive accounting theory on the basis that it does not provide enough justification in the firms providing voluntary disclosures, the implications of the voluntary disclosures have to be understood properly. This can be achieved by the proper understanding of the works conducted by Watts and Zimmerman on social responsibility (Biondi 2017). The organization that has been selected in the journal is the largest private oil and gas explorer in the recent history of Brazil. The case study that has been presented in the journal suggests that the company had made use of the incentives in order to perform the accounting choices similar to the ones that have been forecasted by the positive accounting theory hypothesis (Samaha and Khlif 2016). The company had also gone through a phase of decline and growth that motivated the organization to perform the voluntary disclosures in regards to the accounting choices such as the voluntary management changes; restructuring of the corporate governance hierarchy; execution of the initial public offering; issuance of debt notes. Thus, this evidently states that the positive accounting theory hypothesis has not properly justified the voluntary disclosures in the financial report of the company. In order to understand the implication of the positive accounting theory with much more clarity, the concept of Positive Accounting Theory should be discussed in accordance to the theories that has been proposed by the founders of the Positive Accounting Theory, Ross Watts and Jerold Zimmerman The founders of the theory suggests that managers in an organization have greater incentives for the purpose of lobbying for the accounting standards that evidently increases the earnings and in turn increase the wealth of the mangers. The cash flows and stock prices can decrease due to the taxes, procedures that are regulatory in nature and information and political costs. However, the managers also have to keep in mind the impact of the earnings that have been reported as the costs might have been imposed on the firm (Oulasvirta 2014). Watts and Zimmerman in their accountancy paper have mentioned that the positive accounting theory helps the understanding of the focus points that the accounting principle setters refer. The positive accounting theory also focuses on the effects that the various accounting standards bring about on the different groups of entities that belong to the society (Oulasvirta 2014). The theory proposed by Watts and Zimmerman indicates that the firms result in proper organization of its activities for the maximizing their chances of survival in this market. It has been indicated that the management of the earnings becomes economically efficient when the value of the firm has been maximized and the earnings become opportunistic when the value does not increase (Oulasvirta 2014). Furthermore, the three hypotheses that have been developed by Watts and Zimmerman for analyzing the fact that why managers choose certain accounting practices. These three hypotheses are as follows: Debt Covenant Hypothesis Bonus Plan Hypothesis Political Costs Hypothesis The Bonus Plan Hypothesis has stated that the managers should opt for the accounting policies that lead to the increase in income. This leads to the shift in the reported earnings from the upcoming period to the current period for improving the financial benefits in case the bonus plan is linked with the income obtained by the organization . The Debt Covenant hypothesis states that the managers can effectively choose any practices in regards to the accounting procedures which will increase the income or improve the returns from the assets or reduce the liabilities of the firms. This will facilitate the reflection of the debt-equity level to be the lowest and also avoid violating accounting covenants stated in contracts (Donelson, McInnis and Mergenthaler 2016). The Political Costs Hypothesis evidently suggests that the managers should opt for the accounting practices that lead to the decrease in income for reducing the governmental intervention in their business. This hypothesis further suggests that choosing the accounting policy by the managers who are provided with an incentive may lobby with politicians for accounting procedures that decrease the net income that has been reported in the financial statements (Donelson, McInnis and Mergenthaler 2016). Thus, the inference that can be drawn from the above discussed literature is that the managers can opt for the Debt-equity hypothesis that are less conservative in nature, Political Costs Hypothesis that is more conservative in nature or the Bonus Plan Hypothesis that is less volatile in nature. The Positive Accounting theory can also be executed from the perspective of efficient contracting. The experts accept the fact that it is difficult to determine whether opportunism or efficient contracting can properly drive the accounting policy of the firms. However, the positive accounting theory suggests that efficient contracting should be the sole driver (Donelson, McInnis and Mergenthaler 2016). PAT and the effects of the theory The Positive Accounting Theory efficiently predicts the happenings and interprets them in terms of accounting transactions. The theory also predicts the way in which the firms should behave in the environment of the newly proposed accounting standards.Thus, the implications of the Positive Accounting Theory that can be deduced from the literature that has been discussed in the preceding paragraphs are as follows: The positive accounting theory intends to understand and simplify the choices that the managers have in regards to the different accounting polices across the different firms. It further acknowledges the existence of the economic consequences The firms following the positive accounting theory maximize the chances of their survival in a highly competitive market, thus they organize themselves properly The major perspective that is adopted by this theory is that the firms are looked upon as the accumulation of the contracts that they are a part of. In regards to the positive accounting theory, the firms will efficiently reduce the costs that are associated with the contracts. The costs related to the contracts involve the accounting variables. The firm adopting the positive accounting theory, the firm will opt for the accounting policies that best realizes the need for reducing the contracts related to the costs. The positive accounting theory realizes and takes in consideration the circumstances that are constantly changing, in order to increase the flexibility of the managers for choosing the apt accounting policies The proposed theory also puts forward the issue of opportunistic behavior. The managers who look into the satisfaction of their own personal interests may display an opportunistic behavior Achievement of the Positive Accounting theory The achievement of the positive accounting theory or the implementation of the proposed theory can be done by following the listed procedures: The theory can be adopted by the changing the accounting policies The management of the accruals that are discretionary in nature The theory can also be adopted at the time of adoption of the new accounting standards or change in the current accounting standards In case of the particular case study that has been presented in the selected journal, the company had been experiencing rapid phases of growth and decline which led the managers to make necessary changes that are voluntary in nature like corporate restructure and initial public offering. In addition to that the company had been under serous distress which further resulted in debt covenant violations and reduction in the life cycle of business. The initial years of the company had been successful but later it ran into extreme financial difficulties that led to bankruptcy. This could be evident enough to support the opportunistic accounting choices that would have affected the internal and external contracts. To be more precise, no evidence is available that the company in the selected journal has made opportunistic increasing income accounting changes. Thus, there has been no impact in regards to the debt-covenants and bonus plan or reflection of the decreased income to avoid unnecess ary intervention by the government (Di Pietr, Art, and Ronen 2015). Conclusion The particular conclusion that can be drawn from the above discussed literature and deduced perspectives is that in the case of the absence of an opportunistic approach, the positive accounting theory does not contribute to the accounting choice in the case of this case study. However, in terms with the general perspective, the positive accounting theory returns to the similar conclusion as the ones that had been drawn in the beginning of this particular study. This means that in the absence of particular evidence, the management of the companies makes use of the social disclosures that are presented in the financial reports of the company. Furthermore, it can be stated that the companies adopting positive accounting theories have failed to evidently follow the arguments that have been provided by the founders of the positive accounting theory in their original thesis document. References Williams, P.F., 2014. The myth of rigorous accounting research. Accounting Horizons, 28(4), pp.869-887. Li, X., 2015. Accounting conservatism and the cost of capital: An international analysis. Journal of Business Finance Accounting, 42(5-6), pp.555-582. McLellan, J.D., 2014. Management Accounting Theory and Practice: Measuring the Gap in United States Businesses. Journal of Accounting, Business Management, 21(1). Biondi, Y., 2017. The Firm as an Enterprise Entity and the Tax Avoidance Conundrum: Perspectives from Accounting Theory and Policy. Accounting, Economics, and Law: A Convivium, 7(1). Samaha, K. and Khlif, H., 2016. Adoption of and compliance with IFRS in developing countries: A synthesis of theories and directions for future research. Journal of Accounting in Emerging Economies, 6(1), pp.33-49. Oulasvirta, L.O., 2014. Governmental financial accounting and European harmonisation: Case study of Finland. Accounting, Economics and Law, 4(3), pp.237-263. Donelson, D.C., McInnis, J. and Mergenthaler, R.D., 2016. Explaining Rules?Based Characteristics in US GAAP: Theories and Evidence. Journal of Accounting Research, 54(3), pp.827-861. Karim, A.M., Shaikh, J.M., Hock, O.Y. and Islam, M.R., 2017. Creative Accounting: Techniques of Application-An Empirical Study among Auditors and Accountants of Listed Companies in Bangladesh. Australian Academy of Accounting and Finance Review, 2(3), pp.215-245. Martin, X. and Roychowdhury, S., 2015. Do financial market developments influence accounting practices? Credit default swaps and borrowers? reporting conservatism. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 59(1), pp.80-104. Lungu, C., Caraiani, C., Dascalu, C., Turcu, D. and Turturea, M., 2016. Archival analysis of Corporate Social Responsibility research: the Romanian perspective. Accounting and Management Information Systems, 15(2), p.341. Ademola, O.J. and Moses, O.I., 2017. Accounting Conservatism and its Benefits to Shareholders in Developing Capital Market: Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 17(1), p.89. Di Pietr, A., Art, S. and Ronen, J., 2015. Accounting and regulation. Springer,.

Lamassu Essay Example

Lamassu Essay Lamassu is an Neo-Assyrian Akkadian term used to designate a composite creature, conceived of as a winged lion- or bull-figure with a human head. As protective deities or genii, larger than life-size statue-blocks of lamassi (pl.) were placed on either side of late Assyrian palace doorways and entrances in order to guard against the entry of evil and chaotic forces. As such, they are characteristic of this late phase in the development of Assyrian art (Neo- or Late Assyrian) when sculpture in the round was otherwise rare, compared to earlier periods. Lamassi in sculptural form are usually depicted as double-aspect figures, apparently possessing five (5) separate legs (when viewed from an oblique angle). This allows for two simultaneous depictions: 1. standing guard, when viewed from the front; 2. striding forward, when viewed from the side. The hybrid or composite iconography is powerfully evocative of strength (body of lion bull), speed (an eagles wings) and intelligence (human hea d). Each monolithic colussus was carved partly in relief and partly in the round from a single block of stone, measuring up to 5.50 m2 in size. Initially carved roughly in the quarry, each statue-block was transported to its final location (often by river), where it would be set in place and be subjected to fine carving. The Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art covers both a lengthy chronological span and a vast geographical area. The collection of more than seven thousand works of art ranges in date from 8000 B.C. (the Neolithic period) to the Arab conquest and rise of Islam beginning in A.D. 651. The works come from ancient Mesopotamia, Iran, Syria, Anatolia, and other lands in the region that extends from the Black and Caspian Seas in the north to the southwestern Arabian peninsula, and from western Turkey on the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India. Societies throughout the ancient Near East mai

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Sample Essays on the Biggest InventionsSample essays on the biggest inventions are an excellent method to show your interest in the topic. If you are unsure about how to write a great essay, you can always ask for assistance from professional writers who are better at this. It is a good idea to find writers that have expertise in this type of writing so that you can be confident that they will provide you with high quality results.When looking for samples, it is important to be realistic about the quality of the essay. You may find essays on the most well-known inventions such as Xerox and NASA, but you should not consider these samples as your final draft. These samples are meant to give you a good idea of the style that can be used, but you should still make changes if you feel the essay needs it.If you are a bit unsure about how to create an essay, it is important to remember that this is not the type of project that is easy to complete. There are a number of steps that need to be followed to make sure that you write a quality essay that is grammatically correct and that offers a thorough summary of the biggest inventions. Even if you are not particularly good at grammar, it is important to read over a few samples so that you are sure that the spelling and word usage will be acceptable.The first step to completing this type of essay is to choose a subject. In order to make sure that you are able to create a good essay, you should first decide which topic will be the focus of your essay. This can be something like the history of the invention of the automobile or the history of the Internet.Before you begin to write your essay, you will want to determine the research that will be needed to make sure that the topics that you choose for your essay are the right ones. For example, if you were researching how the Internet became popular, you would want to spend some time researching the origin of the Internet. By spending the time to research the topic, you will be prepared to write a great essay.After choosing the topic, you will want to consider writing an outline for your essay. It is always best to start with an outline because it will allow you to write a good outline. It is important to make sure that you write a good outline before you start writing the actual essay because this will help to make sure that the outline is coherent and that you are writing within the guidelines that are available.Once you have decided on the topic and have written the outline, you will then need to choose a topic that you can work on from the beginning. For example, if you wanted to write an essay about the history of the Internet, you would not need to write the essay until after you had done the research. By choosing a topic that you can work on throughout the entire essay, you will have less stress and you will have more time to concentrate on the actual essay.You will want to try to make your essay as readable as possible. In order to make this eas ier, you should use a template for an essay. By using a template, you will be able to follow a template for each of the essay topics that you choose.

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Outline Proposal Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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